Title: The Lotus Road Author: Marianne Benetatou Publisher: Konidaris Place: Athens Year: 2006 Language: Greek ISBN: 960 – 392-089-4 Pages: 222 Book Description The Lotus Road refers to the most important sites where the historical Buddha Shākyamuni lived. The journey starts at Lumbinī of South Nepal –birthplace of the Buddha-, continues to Bodhgaya of North India –the place of enlightenment-, proceeds to Sārnāth –the place of the first sermon- and, after passing by places of minor importance, comes to an end at Kushinagar, where the Lion of the Shākyas passed away. The four places are the holiest sites of Buddhism. They receive thousands of pilgrims and visitors every year. It seems that travelers from Greece are extremely rare. This book may be the first actual witness of these places in Greek bibliography. The Lotus Road is inscribed in the cradle of Indian civilization, the Ganges valley. The journey is completed by the visit to some important centers of Hinduism, such as Katmandu, Varānasī, Khajurāho, Delhi and Jaipur. The dialogue of the Buddha with the dominant Brahmanic society of his time has been one of the most important events, which have influenced both Buddhism and Hinduism. The tension between them and the resulting tendencies, nurtured by fifteen centuries of coexistence, have written, without a doubt, one of the most fascinating adventures of humanity. I relate to the reader my experience, my knowledge and my ideas. In purpose I avoided any systematic reference to home situations, ideas, or institutions. They may make the subject more accessible, but, at the same time, they ran the risk of altering it by imposing familiar mental categories, values and practices on Indian reality. I think that the educated reader is culturally free enough to be interested into subjects distant from his or her own intellectual background. Our starting point is Katmandu, capital of Nepal. We are transported, in geography and in culture, near the places where the Buddha lived. According to legend, the Buddha was born in the 6th century BCE as prince Siddhārtha amidst the royal circle of Kapilavastu, the capital of an independent state of South Nepal. Our research focuses on the reasons why he renounced the world in order to embrace the life of an ascetic. One of the most polluted cities of our planet, Katmandu magnifies the multiple impasses of many Asian countries. The all present poverty, the all pervading stench, the cripping sickness, finally, the silent despair give the impression that the traveler reenacts the disappointment of prince Siddhārtha, when he faced the problems of his society. The Buddhist teaching often refers to the vanity of ritual, as, according to the Buddha, it was practiced by the Brahmanic society of his time. At the temple of god Shiva, Pashupatināth, the cremation ground, the circle of life and death is realized with acuteness. The Buddha introduced, or at least spread widely, the ideal behavior of ahimsā, non violence, or no injury inflicted to any living being. It may be the only unconditional rule of Buddhism. It is based on the idea that every living being has the right to live its life uninjured in order to fulfil its karma. No living being has the right to put his or her personal profit above the life or the integrity, or even the well being of any other living being. The Buddha lived in the Indian society and his teaching can be understood within this conceptual context. The present day reality provides us with a useful standpoint to glimpse at the 6th century situation. The next step is to turn to the Vedic lore, and mainly to the Upanishāds, in order to understand the main religious teachings of the Buddha’s time. The idea of the absolute, transcendent brahman and its identity with the inner self, ātman, is examined. Our investigation brings us to Lumbinī, the beautiful park, where prince Siddhārtha was born. The present day park is a living example of the Buddhist ideals of peace and tranquillity. It is situated in the present province Terai of South Nepal, a few kilometers from the ancient Kapilavastu. The most important monument is the temple of Māyādevī, Buddha’s mother. Extensive excavations have brought to light ruins of a 3rd century BCE temple. The most sacred place is a stone, where the “footprint of the baby” can be seen. It is supposed to be the first footprint of the newborn. Behind the temple is the commemorative pillar of emperor Ashoka. He commemorated his visit at the place where the Buddha was born. Emperor Ashoka interacted in various ways with the Hellenistic world. Some of his inscriptions, written in Greek, address his Yona subjects. Apparently, the Yonas were Greek veterans from Alexander’s expedition to northwestern India, installed in Bactriane. They may have included some Ionic people, which had been earlier deported at the region by Darius after the insurrection and repression by the Persian forces of the Ionic cities. Ashoka has sent Buddhist missions to many kings as far as Egypt and Epirus, but we know nothing of their destiny. He promoted Buddhism to state religion and at the same time sent missions abroad to teach the Dharma. The sacred park of Lumbinī reaches a surface of five square kilometers. There are monasteries from different Buddhist countries already built, under construction, or about to be built. Along the park runs a canal. On the west side are the Mahāyāna monasteries and on the east side the Theravāda. On the far end of the park dominates the Japanese white Peace Pagoda. The connection of the social problems with the existential questioning of man, led Siddhārtha to seek enlightenment, liberation from rebirth, perfect wisdom and perfect compassion. The way to liberation was a well known quest in Indian circles of renouncers. At that time Greek philosophers tried to give an answer to moral questions by elaborating the ideal of the virtuous citizen, kalos kagathos, who fulfils himself by participating to city politics. The divergence between the Indian and the Greek point of view concerning the value of politics in personal fulfillment determines decisively the philosophical issues of man in the universe and his ultimate quest. In consequence, metaphysical matters are approached from a theoretical point of view by Greek philosophers, whilst Indian sages sought an existential foundation and an efficient path to liberation. Most places where the Buddha lived and taught are found at Bihar of North India. The most sacred place of Buddhism is Bodhgaya, the place of enlightenment. Situated amidst innumerable rice fields, at the bank of the river Nirañjanā, it is the destination of thousands of pilgrims. The center of the present day village is occupied by the Mahābodhi Mahāvihāra, the Great Monastery of the Great Enlightenment. On its side, a thick balustrade protects the Bodhi Tree (Tree of Enlightenment), of the species ficus indica. At its shade is worshiped the Diamond Throne (vajrāsana), as it is at the exact spot where Siddhārta sat in meditation and the Buddha got up. Imposing monastic complexes, belonging to different Buddhist countries, thrive with life all around the sacred area. Each one holds its own ritual and the monastic discipline of its home country. Some of them offer rooms and serve meals for a modest amount of money. The region evokes real or symbolic events which have preceded or have followed the enlightenment. Each event reveals a specific aspect of the experience of enlightenment. The preceding events represent symbolically the perfect, total and unreserved compassion emanating from enlightenment, as well as the dedication of the Buddha to the liberation of all living beings from the circle of reexistence. The legend says that, after enlightenment, the Buddha sat in meditation for seven weeks to various spots near the Bodhi Tree. Each meditation concerned the elucidation of a certain aspect of the supreme knowledge. Following the Buddha’s itinerary, we arrive at Sārnāth, at the Deer Park (Mrighadayavana), where Buddhist lore places the first sermon. The Four Noble Truths (Cattari Ariya Saccani), the core of that first teaching, seem to be a codification of the whole Buddhist teaching, summarized perhaps by the Buddha in person. The word dukkha, which renders the meaning of the First Noble Truth, has often been the object of wrong, or, at least, tentative translation. In consequence, there still prevails the misunderstanding that Buddhism is a pessimistic religion holding that existence is suffering, pain and unhappiness. A more precise translation, based on the different nuances of discontent, uneasiness and sadness, may cover the most current and acceptable use of the word in Buddhist vocabulary. Dukkha is neither an intellectual idea, nor a discourse on truth. It is the interpretation of an existential situation, which can be realized only by meditation. Although in the 6th century BCE Eurasian thought is primarily concerned with metaphysical matters, the teaching of the Buddha is distinct. It teaches how to realize things and not what they are according to reason. The foundation of existence as well as the ultimate goal of man is realized by the Buddhist Middle Path (Majjhimā Patipadā), which concerns right behavior, right concentration and right knowledge. Buddhism is a way of thinking and acting and not a theory. The Buddha’s most significant “discovery” concerns the latent tendencies (samskāra), which drive consciousness to acts of will. In classical Indian philosophy the subject is well integrated into the doctrine of karma, of voluntary act and its result. In the 6th century BCE the subject of a latent mental dynamism seems to be elaborated at first in Buddhist circles. It can be attributed to the deep meditation states which have prepared for or have followed enlightenment. Ancient Buddhist texts often use the expression “to burn” or “to extinguish” the unprofitable roots of greed, fear and illusion, pointing, in this way, to the idea of erasing every residue of bad karmic causes. The province of Bihar has been witness to some of the most important sermons of the Buddha. The Vulture Pick, near the ancient city of Rājagriha (today Rājghir) is of utmost significance to Buddhist lore. The Mahāyāna sūtras invariably take place at this far away, almost inaccessible rock. The legendary decor of the sermons, defeating all attempts to rational explanation, matches the grandiose surroundings of the actual place. At least two symbolic events take place on the Vulture Pick. First, the sermon written down as the Saddharma Pundarīka Sūtra, the most popular text of Mahāyāna Buddhism. Then the transmission of the Buddha mind to Mahākāshyapa initiating the Zen lineage of the patriarchs. Both legendary events transport us to China and to the reception and evolution of Buddhism in the Kingdom of the Middle. The unique features of Chinese Buddhism are due to an elaborate integration of Indian Buddhism in the mentality and ways of philosophizing of the Chinese. The Buddha passed away at Kushinagar, near the present day city of Gorakhpur. The excavations have revealed an archaic stūpa, a round tumulus serving as a tomb or as a commemorative monument, and the nearby ruins of many monasteries. The stūpa is supposed to stand on the very spot where the teacher laid down for the last time. There, being in deep meditation, “even as a bright flame dies away,” so he was delivered from the bonds of life. At a short distance, at Rāmābhār, an intact ancient stūpa is supposed to stand on the place, where the body of the teacher was cremated. Kushinagar is home to a few monasteries from foreign Buddhist countries, but the region is being developed fast into an important Buddhist site. Indian Buddhism cannot be understood without extensive reference to Indian reality of yesterday and of today. The city of Varānasī, the holy city of god Shiva, Khajurāho, the temple complex of the 10th to the 12th century ACE, world famous for its sensual and unusual reliefs, the isolated ashram of Galta at the outskirts of Jaipur, offer useful points of reference in order to understand the extraordinary richness of Indian philosophical thought, as well as its complex spiritual practices. Varānasī is one of the rare sites on earth with uninterrupted human occupation from the beginning of mankind until today. Oriented towards the river Ganges, it lives at the rhythm of the mighty river. Mother Gangā is an important figure of mother – goddess in Indian religion. Her image and her lore create powerful associations, which provide comfort and relief to her children. Ritual, hygiene, caste system, tourism, poverty and richness, yogic practices – they all meet and happily interact at the banks of the Mother. We get an idea of the way philosophical thought has developed in Indian circles. Festivals, holy places, temples are meeting points for the seekers of truth of all walks of life. Khajurāho offers a completely different aspect of Hinduism. Discovered less than two centuries ago by the British, it still keeps its secrets. The extravagant imagination of the artists, probably of their royal patrons as well, point to a tantric explanation of the vast enterprise. Nonetheless, the divine bliss of the transcendent absolute, either as a personal god, or as the non qualified supreme brahman, is a well known subject of Indian philosophical thought as far back as the early Upanishāds. The ritual circumambulation of the temples invites the worshipper to identify himself or herself with the divine images anticipating thus the supreme bliss of the union of the self with the absolute. The different aspects of the divine are accurately represented at the temple complex of Galta, Jaipur. An abrupt ravine reveals progressively the temples of the popular and other less popular gods of the Hindu pantheon. At the foot of the mountain the temple of Krishna and an emerald pool of clear water offer rest, shade and purification for the journey ahead. The visitor goes from one temple to the other in a symbolic round of visits climbing to more and more abstract representations of the absolute.

Title: Beyond Orientalism Author: Marianne Benetatou Publisher: Konidaris Place: Athens Year: 2007 Language: Greek ISBN: 960 – 392 – 107 - 3 Pages: 272 Book Description Orientalism is the study of Asian civilizations from the point of view of the West. Inevitably, such an approach examines different intellectual traditions in the light of its own familiar conceptual habits. Beyond Orientalism goes further than the prevailing point of view of two different and often conflicting civilizations of East and West. It approaches the Chinese philosophy of life and the ancient Greek philosophy of knowledge with a critical intention. Its purpose is to investigate the mental habits and the conceptual models which have contributed to the articulation of these two philosophical traditions. The constituent principles of Chinese philosophy are investigated, as well as some well established notions concerning ancient Greek philosophy. Before any kind of communication, of exchange or of comparative study there is an intention, an idea concerning what we expect and what we think of the others. This image is brought about as much by personal experience as by the imagination and the expectations of the whole society. Additionally, the familiar is perceived through the affective and intellectual channels inherited by cultural tradition, as well as through the manner we wish to perceive ourselves and others. From antiquity until today, China has never stopped to fascinate the Western man. The distance, the organization, the exoticism, the mystery, the riches and the opportunities have played their part in this long, as well as ambiguous relationship. Sometimes as the utopia, sometimes as the model, sometimes as the apple of Discord and today as the new Eldorado, the imagination of the West has never ceased to project its own symbolic representations on the Kingdom of the Middle. From antiquity until the Enlightenment, China has been considered an ideal State, where moral perfection was predominant. During colonialism, this representation was degraded by the disparagement of Chinese civilization. Today it has been replaced by the conviction that China provides abundant opportunities for making a fortune. The West uses the idea of China in order to fulfill its own dream: Virtue, power, money. Three ideals, which have developed the symbolic representations of China and these, in their turn, have determined in various ways the real relations between the two ends of Eurasia. During their long term exchanges, the Chinese have hardly been interested in European civilization. They have been eager to import Western technology, but they were convinced that China was the only civilized country in the world. Only at the beginning the 20th century did the intellectuals study and introduce Western ideas and theories to China. It is beyond doubt that there has not been direct historical influence between Chinese and Greek intellectual traditions. In the ancient world ideas circulated through diverse channels. The central meeting point was the Persian Empire. The ancient world, throughout Eurasia, was preoccupied with the same ideal of political harmony and stability based on man’s moral virtue. Nevertheless, the viewpoint and, consequently, the answer to such questions varied according to the circumstances and the prevalent conditions of each society. The Chinese philosophy of life is based on the thought of the two great philosophers, Confucius and Laozi. Confucius thinks of man as an integrated part of the political and social community. Right behavior is obtained by reproducing particular exemplary actions, written down by tradition. The virtuous and good man imitates them to the point of deliberately reproducing the spirit of the ancients. The ancient Greek philosophy of knowledge is based on the thought of Socrates, Plato and Aristotle. Virtue comes from the knowledge of truth, which converts the soul to the moral good and determines all aspects of behavior. The first fundamental condition of philosophy is put in evidence: the philosophy of life, aiming at efficient action in order to promote the social good, follows the model of reproducing exemplary actions. The keynote is the integration into vast entities. The philosophy of knowledge underlines man’s right judgment as the path to truth. From the initial choice arise the respective positions of the two intellectual traditions concerning human destiny. Taoist philosophy adapts the model of imitating exemplary actions to the integration of man into the vast universe. Man is born to live harmoniously with the visible and the invisible world. He copies nature’s way of proceeding in order to integrate into the cosmic pattern obtaining, thus, indestructibility or immortality. Ancient Greek philosophy, centered on man, diverges from the natural world. Aristotle opposes nature’s determinism to freedom of rational thought. Therefore, man realizes his destiny by participating actively in the public affairs of the city - State. Further, the noblest and most appropriate occupation is the contemplation of the divine being. The origins of philosophical thought are approached by an unconventional manner. Instead of looking for historical documents, the book proceeds by the examination of two classical texts of China, the Book of Changes (Yi Jing) and the Book of Documents (Shu Jing). It analyses the guiding lines of Chinese thought through the ages. The style of the philosophy of life and of the philosophy of knowledge respectively is investigated from the point of view of tradition and innovation. Confucius, self styling himself as the transmitter of ancient wisdom, values and behavior, chooses to call his own, original or not, ideas commentaries and explanation. Socrates criticizes the sophists’ positions. He encourages the philosopher to seek the truth by his own means and to formulate personal and original ideas. The conscious choice of these two philosophers has influenced philosophical discourse until today. Classifying an idea or theory as traditional or original results mostly from the way it is perceived by its author (and public) and less by the actual content. Wishful thinking can also play a more or less important part in the attribution. Conscious choice of the way philosophers define their work is even more decisive for the history of philosophy in the subject of method. Traditionally, the philosophy of life is considered to be holistic, whilst the philosophy of knowledge is considered to be analytical. By the examples of the philosophies of Laozi, Confucius and Plato a much more complex reality is put in evidence. None of the above mentioned philosophies appears consistent in methodology. The authors follow different methods according to the object under discussion and which they believe – but never discuss openly- to be most appropriate to their purpose. Other important choices, this time concerning the content of philosophical discourse, come from the linguistic idiom into which they are expressed. This view is examined on the subject of motion according to Aristotle and to Laozi. The particular chapter puts in evidence the linguistic, sometimes even the empirical, factors, which have restricted the Aristotelian theory of movement between two steady points. The subject of motion is of primary importance in Chinese philosophy. Once more it is connected, for linguistic reasons, to the subject of the nature of things and of cosmic being. Dao means road and the two original principles of Sky (Tian) and Earth (Ti) express the two consecutive moments of movement, beginning and duration respectively. The absence of distinction between verb and noun in the Chinese language has led philosophical thought to conceive being as moving, circular and constant. Such a reality is properly incomprehensible to verb – noun languages. Belonging to the same school of thought does not prevent Chinese philosophers from supporting sometimes opposite views on crucial issues. Mencius and Xunzi, famous representatives of the Confucian school, have defended divergent views on man’s nature. The first one held that man is by nature good, compassionate and affectionate. The second one argued that man is by nature bad and he is yoked to the common good by education and discipline. Finally, the Taoist school has criticized all Confucian positions by pointing out that education, as well as social and moral values deviate man’s natural potentialities. If he is left to himself, unhindered by external intervention, man develops harmoniously his natural endowment contributing, thus, to universal peace and happiness. Another subject of initial choice is that of the distinction between subject and object in Greek philosophy and of interior and exterior in Chinese philosophy respectively. Taoist philosophy maintains that subject and object belong to the field of phenomenal or external reality, which is deceiving. The real interior self is united with the real interior world forming a whole. The distinction between subject and object (beings, things and world) comes from the irrational desires and wrong choice of ego centered man. The philosophy of life starts with the integration of models of behavior which guide man to adapt gradually to bigger and bigger entities. From family to society and to the State, man cultivates harmony internally and appropriate conduct externally. The ideal of Chinese society is peace and stability of all members into a harmonious unity. The Annex is about longevity in China. The question of a long life has been diversely approached in China and in the West. Western thought has been mostly preoccupied with the idea of life after death. It further maintains that to live a meaningful although short life is the supreme good man can attain. It stresses the importance of the spiritual and moral values in shaping the quality of life and considers as morally indifferent the quantity of years to be lived. Since Greek antiquity, continuing with Christianity and modern philosophy, the needs, the desires and the aspirations concerning the persistence and the well being of the body have been subordinated to the values of the spirit. The body is perishable, a “necessary evil,” whilst the soul is eternal, indestructible and morally good. The question of how to live longer has recently appeared in the medical research concerning geriatrics. In what measure a long life span can be a self-fulfilling, meaningful goal to be pursued is still an open question for scientists and philosophers alike. In China, long life together with good luck and social status are considered to be the best things to pursue. A natural life span is thought to be one hundred to one hundred and fifty years and consequently many techniques have been developed which try to protract life to this length. The philosophy of long life is based on the general views of the Chinese concerning the world, nature and man. It is articulated around certain key concepts, such as qi, spirit (shen), physical form (xing), immortality (hsien) and fate (ming). Long life is attained by preserving and developing the original qi that man is born with. This original qi is the life energy, the vital power which gives and sustains life. Death is caused by the depletion of the vital qi. The word qi is difficult to translate literally as it covers a wide range of meanings, like breath, vitality and life energy. If we try to define its “nature,” it is neither a substance, nor a function, but it partakes in both. Some times it is considered to be the primordial material out of which the world and man have been made. Other times it is considered to be the cause of different processes and movements in nature and in man. It is what can be called an “operational concept,” which explains how things come to be rather than what things are. As such it is potentially both spirit and matter. In the Western mind, spirit and body are two distinct entities which are different in nature. This is the reason why, philosophically speaking, needs and aspirations are separated into bodily and spiritual and they, in turn, are usually perceived as conflictual. In the Chinese mind, spirit and body are distinct yet they partake of the same qi nature. The conflict cannot be caused by an ontological difference; it arises for psychological reasons, when an artificial egoistic identity is created and superimposed on the original one. This man-made construction disrupts the natural harmony of spiritual and physical qi. Daoist philosophy has developed different ideas about longevity according to the importance given to the spiritual or the bodily qi. Until 1000 CE adepts have been interested in physical longevity and in experimentation with alchemical drugs. Longevity is then considered to be a non-death, or a non-experience of death. It is a state of spontaneity and freedom where the adept sheds off the limitations of the apparent body, recovers the potentiality of the natural physical form and roams happily around the universe. After circa 1000 CE the adepts have been more interested in the idea of spiritual longevity and in the techniques of inner alchemy, like qi gong. Spiritual longevity is attained by the manifestation of the original purity of the spirit which transcends conscious thought. In this perspective, physical form is subordinated to the spirit. In both spiritual and physical longevity it is necessary to have a good health and a long life span in order to have the bodily fitness and the time to accomplish the goal. But according to Chinese beliefs the length of life is predetermined by fate. The amount of vital qi received at birth is fixed in advance by the stars and it cannot be changed. Yet fatalism seems to be now in retreat. There is a more active tendency to attribute to fate the facts and to man the way to handle them. In comparison with current western ideas about longevity, some remarks are to be made: 1. The age to be stabilized is different in the West and in China. The Western world favors youthfulness whilst the Chinese favor old age. 2. The ideas about life and death and consequently about how important it is to protract physical life differ greatly. In the West the idea of a strong individual nucleus which persists after death predominates. In China, man’s qi returns to nature and merges with the elements after death. The Chinese idea of nature and naturalness call for some remarks: 1. The same laws govern man and the physical world. 2. There is an overall necessity which runs through man and the universe alike. The state of naturalness is less a fact and more an ideal. It is produced by different views and motivations, such as philosophical, mystical, ideological, political, medical, etc. It is difficult to dissociate it from the historical, cultural and ideological context which has fostered it. The philosophy of longevity gives emphasis to personal effort in order to live long, healthy and happy. It is realized through a continuous improvement of the physical, psychological and spiritual well being. It stresses the need to be open, in tune with things and people, to avoid rush action and forceful intervention. It encourages in letting things develop their potential on their own particular rhythms. It determines a way of action which evades open conflict and proceeds by continuous small readjustments. Finally it underlines the fact that longevity techniques are only the means for a harmonious life in dao. They are not to be confused for the end in and of itself.  

Confucianism and Modern China

The paper sums up the conclusions of two important philosophical events in respect to Confucianism, namely the 23^rd Congress of Philosophy, Athens, August 2013 and the International Symposium on Confucianism in the World, Lomonosov Moscow State University, November 2013. In both conferences Confucianism has been examined from the point of view of its aptitude to contribute to the ideological, moral and cultural identity of modern China.

At the 23^rd World Congress of Philosophy China was well represented by a delegation of 200 professors and scholars from the top Universities and Institutions of the country. More than sixty papers concerned Confucianism and other Chinese philosophical theories.

Last November I was invited by the Lomonosov Moscow State University to speak at the International Symposium on Confucianism in Russia and the world. Thirty participants from Beijing, Sichuan, Shandong, Moscow, St. Petersburg and Tel Aviv Universities debated on current issues of Confucianism.

Based on these academic meetings, I shall give a brief account of the main lines of thought concerning the role of Confucianism in modern China.

First, it is important to keep in mind that Confucianism has been an active part of Chinese culture for more than two thousand five hundred years. Being the official ideology of the Empire for two millennia, it has contributed to shaping the mental, political, administrative and moral landscape of historical China. Solicited to enlighten and guide the successive configurations of Chinese history, Confucianism has constantly been revisited, reexamined, recasted and contextualized. Besides, the constant resourcing in tradition may explain in a certain measure the “Chinese miracle” as such. A strictly speaking economic boom is managed by virtue of a flexible but solid background of cultural responses.

It is worth mentioning that Marxism and its ideological heritage have not developed a moral theory. In the present Chinese context, Confucianism is invited to provide moral guidelines to all levels, political, social and personal alike.

The interaction of Confucianism with modern politics is ambiguous. Until recently, it was denounced as superstitious and backwards, the morality of feudal society. However, modern China needs to formulate a purely Chinese worldview and Confucianism recasted and duly contextualized is a strong asset.

First, it advocates that a State may enjoy harmony, stability, peace and prosperity if and only if the leaders conduct themselves with humanity and rightness (ren yi, 任义). Confucius compares the ruler to the polar star. Standing still, the star lights the night sky and guides travelers in their nocturnal journey. In the same way, the ruler has to inspire people by his/her own living example of right conduct. Therefore, morality is the pillar of a long and prosperous State.

The three public priorities of the Chinese State are food, education and healthcare. Without underestimating their obvious actuality, it is worth mentioning that Confucianism has steadily and permanently promoted the same political agenda.

Moreover, there is much discussion today about harmony and stability (hexie wending, 和谐稳定), which Confucians have first advanced as political and social ideals. The direction to follow may also be traced back to tradition. Union and equilibrium between social or ethnic groups does not mean unity or assimilation. Differences are to be respected and find their expression within collective, national goals.

An aftermath of political ethics is managerial ethics and the application of Confucian values and aspirations to business management. Confucian management is a very active and upcoming field of business ethics.

The second aspect of recasted Confucianism concerns society at large and individual conduct. In the past few years Confucian classics have been translated in simplified versions, sometimes illustrated in the manner of comics, and sold by millions. Even famous TV show persons have taken an interest. It is a phenomenon of fashion, but, by its very popularity, it works. Simple and practical values, ideals and interpersonal relations exercise a real and massive influence on a great part of the population.

Filial piety, devotion and respect, honesty and loyalty are the pillars of Confucian ethics. The importance of family relations is explained as part of the solidity of Chinese society and its resistance to the impact of Western individualistic morality. Furthermore, family relations constitute the archetypal example of all social and political relations. Chinese society presents a compact and solid infrastructure of tight personal relations creating personal networks which work on a complex base of reciprocal obligations and favors.

Finally, the Russian-Chinese Symposium has laid stress on the importance of ritual and propriety (li,礼). Rites do not exclusively concern formal occasions or religious festivities. According to Confucius, they impregnate human life in its totality by bestowing solemnity even to the most trivial act. They facilitate cooperation and thwart frictions avoiding violence and all factors of social volatility. They promote harmony and stability. We need more ritual, in the sense of socially approved manners which consolidate the sense of belonging to a community. Neo-Confucianism is also revisited in the light of modern debate on the questions of human rights, fair treatment, equality of chances, etc. Philosophers such as Zhu Xi (朱熹) or Wang Yangming (王扬明) provide a significant conceptual framework along with sound arguments for developing an alternative discourse with Chinese characteristics. 

Last but not least, sound institutions cannot work without upright people. Confucian ethics stress the need to train the ruling class in order to serve the people with loyalty, humaneness and rightness. Moral education and self cultivation acquire an increased significance as the vehicle of forming a well attuned ruling class, ready and willing to respond positively to society’s needs. Neo-Confucians have described with some length the successive steps of the appropriate training. Their views attract much attention.

A last point concerns vocabulary. “Confucianism” is a Western European word conned on terms describing ideological or religious movements. In Chinese it has always been “ru” (儒).  As Confucius said, order comes from the rectification of names. Let’s start by rectifying “Confucianism.”

  

PRELIMINARY NOTES TO COMPARATIVE METHODOLOGY 

Comparing heterogeneous material, be it religious beliefs, cultural traditions, artistic creations, or philosophical theories comes spontaneously to the human mind. It is no wonder, inasmuch as the procedure permits to bridge the cognitive gap between the familiar and the unfamiliar, the known and the unknown. It also permits to land on safe ground, to domesticate in some sort the imprevisibility of the new, by inscribing it into an already familiar pattern. The other becomes different but not inexplicably/unreasonably alien. It shares some aspects or at least some reference points with the already known. It is not totally different, it is just divergent. Furthermore, I can pin point precise points of divergence, of aliency either directly or by stressing the commonalities with my own stock of references. Such procedures may seem natural and spontaneous; however they result from a complex cluster of mental preconceptions/operations. Such operations are not spontaneous/mechanical; but come about after a series of conscious choices and rearrangements operated by the comparativist.

Comparative Philosophy is not restricted by its content. It may take as subject-matter practically any theory or conceptual scheme the comparativist thinks worth studying. The difference with other branches of philosophy lies primarily in the method and the rigorous axioms or principles it enunciates and is constrained to follow thereafter. In fact, comparing has different levels of validity, credibility and ultimately interest. If it does not comport the restraints of self criticism, then it cannot properly be listed as philosophical endeavor. It may seem self evident, but I think that this is one of the most controversial points of the whole discipline. This is due to another comparative specificity which is often cited but rarely overtly faced. I speak of the mobilization of the cultural, personal, social, even political assumptions which surface time and again in the comparative process. By surfacing, I would like to underline that they are always there, more or less overtly conscious, at times serving as motivation, guidelines, even sanctioning or condemning the “other.”

Apart from the comparativist’s subjectivity –often disguised as “objective” criteria-, comparative philosophy has to elucidate its purpose. If the content covers practically all speculative fields, and the motivation needs to be clearly perceptible both to the comparativist and the reader, the purpose is also inscribed in the method. Is it to make the unfamiliar familiar by the mobilization of familiar intellectual tools? Is it an open questioning of both me and the other taking as a pretext the other’s otherness in order to explore conjointly our unknowability?  In sum, comparative philosophy is a formal discipline. It consists in a clearly enunciated method, which guides the project from the beginning to its ultimate conclusions.